Electrochemical Sensors for Biomedical and Environmental Monitoring: A Comprehensive Review

Electrochemical sensors have emerged as powerful analytical tools for real-time monitoring in biomedical diagnostics and environmental surveillance due to their high sensitivity, selectivity, rapid response, and costeffectiveness. These sensors operate by converting chemical information into measurable electrical signals through electrochemical reactions occurring at the electrode–electrolyte interface. In recent years, significant advancements in nanomaterials, electrode modification techniques, and microfabrication technologies have greatly enhanced the performance and applicability of electrochemical sensing platforms. This review provides a comprehensive overview of electrochemical sensors used for biomedical and environmental monitoring. It discusses the fundamental working principles, classification, and recent developments in electrochemical sensing technologies including potentiometric, amperometric, conductometric, and voltammetric sensors. Special emphasis is placed on the integration of nanostructured materials such as graphene, carbon nanotubes, metal nanoparticles, and conductive polymers to improve detection limits and response times. In biomedical applications, electrochemical sensors play a critical role in detecting biomarkers, glucose levels, pathogens, and disease-related metabolites for early diagnosis and personalized healthcare. In environmental monitoring, these sensors are widely applied for the detection of heavy metals, pesticides, toxic gases, and organic pollutants in water, air, and soil. The review also highlights recent progress in portable, wearable, and miniaturized electrochemical sensing devices that enable on-site and real-time analysis. Furthermore, challenges related to sensor stability, selectivity in complex matrices, reproducibility, and long-term operational performance are critically discussed. Future prospects emphasize the integration of electrochemical sensors with artificial intelligence, wireless communication systems, and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies for smart monitoring platforms. Overall, electrochemical sensors represent a promising and rapidly evolving field with significant potential to address global healthcare and environmental sustainability challenges.